The term ‘intelligent building’ originated in the early 1980s in the United States, where it was used to denote buildings with sophisticated telecommunications, building management and data networking services that provided shared tenant services (STS) to their occupants. The development of the intelligent building (IB) was closely linked to the growth of information technology (IT) during this period. At the beginning of the 1980s, mainframes formed the core of most corporate computer systems. As the decade progressed, the use of minicomputers in business became more common. Building automation and building control systems soon started to utilize this new technology. Definitions of the intelligent building during this period therefore focused on major technological systems such as building automation, communications and office automation.
The term ‘intelligent building’ originated in the early 1980s in the United States, where it was used to denote buildings with sophisticated telecommunications, building management and data networking services that provided shared tenant services (STS) to their occupants. The development of the intelligent building (IB) was closely linked to the growth of information technology (IT) during this period. At the beginning of the 1980s, mainframes formed the core of most corporate computer systems. As the decade progressed, the use of minicomputers in business became more common. Building automation and building control systems soon started to utilize this new technology. Definitions of the intelligent building during this period therefore focused on major technological systems such as building automation, communications and office automation.
The second half of the 1980s, however, was dominated by the dramatic increase in the use of the personal computer (PC) in most work environments. PCs placed massive pressures on the quality of the physical environment and their impacts on space on space, heat, cabling and lighting caused major problems for many organizations.
By the early 1990s, many IT-related problems had either been solved or a solution was in sight-structured cabling, distributed processing, smaller and more powerful computers.
Today, almost every new building has to accommodate higher levels of servicing than ever before. Although some buildings completed recently have been labeled intelligent, there is still a fair way to go before integrated ‘smart’ devices are likely to be capable of maintaining optimal internal environments. However, this issue is just one of many that must be considered when attempting to characterize intelligent buildings.
Building should ‘know’ what is happening inside and immediately outside. Buildings should ‘decide’ the most effective way of providing a convenient, comfortable and productive environment for the occupants. Buildings should ‘respond’ quickly to occupants’ requests.
Several different types technology need to be present before any building could be termed intelligent. They exist in many buildings already, although have often been introduced as afterthoughts, instead of resulting from the identified needs of owners and occupants. However, many of the problems are not related to the technology-this provides the solutions-rather they are related to the needs of owners and occupants.
Building automation (BA) systems: to enable the building to respond to external factors and conditions; simultaneous sensing, control and monitoring of the internal environment; and the storage of the data generated, as knowledge of the building’s performance, in a central computer system.
Office automation (OA) systems: to provide management information and link to the central computer system as decision support aids. Office Automation is the application of computer and communication technology to improve the productivity of clerical and managerial office workers. The list includes telephone and computer systems, electronic mail, word processing, desktop publishing, database management systems, tow-way cable TV, office to office satellite broadcasting, on-line database services, and voice recognition and synthesis.
Communications automation (CA) systems: to enable rapid communication with the outside world, via the central computer system, using optical fiber installations, microwave and conventional satellite links.
A consequence of this integration is that intelligent buildings will have more in common with engineering projects than those of traditional construction. They require many different skills and an understanding of technology in a broader context than has hitherto been the need within the construction industry.
The history of the intelligent building can be divided into three didtinct periods
Automated buildings (1981-1985)：US tax laws in the 1980s helped to fuel an explosive growth in speculative office building. The result was an over-supply of office space in such cities as Dallas and Houston and fierce competition for tenants in other cities to minimize the period it took to fill new buildings. Developers saw the provision of ‘building intelligence’, in buildings and the services made available to tenants, as a means of giving their buildings a marketing edge over those of their competitors.
Telecommunications suppliers were also forced to compete for business – in their case by the deregulation of telecommunications in 1984. Deregulation also allowed any company to buy long-distance service wholesale from one of the new suppliers and retail them to end users. A large multi-tenanted building was seen by providers and users as the ideal vehicle to take advantage of these regulatory changes. Building managers and owners could negotiate large-volume discounts for long-distance carrier services, based on the traffic of all the building tenants. They could then pass on a proportion of the volume discount to the end users- charging them at a lower rate than tenants acting individually could have negotiated. This arrangement also benefited the telecommunications supplier, since a single STS scheme in a building assured them of most of the telecommunications traffic of both present and future tenants.
These first-generation STS schemes were not as successful as expected. By 1986 there were over 180 developments in the US offering STS, but within these the average take-up by tenants was only 20%. Companies large enough to afford their own computer and telecommunications equipment – and have their own established IT purchasing policies-were understandably reluctant to be locked into buildings duplicating their own facilities and with less reliability. There was also a great deal of concern about the security and integrity of shared telecommunications and data networking systems.
Japan adopted the concept of the intelligent building enthusiastically and very quickly built some of the world’s most technologically advanced intelligent building – the Toshiba HQ [1984] and NTT Twins [1986] in Tokyo, for example.
Much of the Japanese office stock was backward, by Western standards, and in an attempt to improve its overall quality the development of intelligent building was encouraged very strongly by the Japanese government .The Japanese Ministry of Construction made substantial financial incentives to projects that met its definition of intelligence -building highly sophisticated information and communication facilities and systems, or built-in provision for future introduction of such facilities and systems highly sophisticated maintenance and manpower on air-conditioning and lighting provision of disaster prevention facilities, security installations and satisfactory room environments appropriate measures to ensure safe operation of the information of the information and communication facilities and systems interconnection with other buildings by means of highly sophisticated communications networks
In addition to government support there were other factors in Japan that encouraged the rapid development of intelligent buildings – the deregulation of NTT, the ability of the Japanese electronics industry to turn the intelligent building into a number of realistic products, the Japanese desire for innovation and the realization that intelligence does not exist in isolated buildings.
The intelligent building models from this period both Japanese and North American, were entirely focused on the information technology in the building – the more computer applications in the building, the more intelligent it was judged to be.
Responsive buildings (1986-1991)：In the mid-1980s the limitations of purely technological definitions of building intelligence began to become apparent. Research such as the Orbit studies, led by architects DEGW, examined the interactions between organizations, buildings and information technology in the context of a rapidly changing work environment.
One of the key findings of the Orbit research was that buildings that were unable to cope with changes in the organizations that occupy them, or in the information technology that they use, would become prematurely obsolete and would either require substantial refurbishment or demolition. In the light of this, definitions of building intelligence were then modified to include an additional dimension: responsiveness to change. The intelligent building elements such as shell, services, scenery and settings (Figure 0.1)
Effective buildings (1992>)：The development of the concept of building intelligence in Europe has lagged behind the US and Japan European office buildings are generally much smaller (less than 10 000m??) and telecommunications are still regulated in many parts of Europe. In Northern Europe, particularly, the form of the office is quite different from the typical North American large-scale, open-plan space, featuring smaller spaces with a much higher degree of enclosure.
In 1991/92 DEGW and IT consultants Teknibank undertook a major research project to assess the status of intelligent buildings in Europe. The project, Intelligent Buildings in Europe (IBE), defined as an intelligent building any building that: ’… provides a responsive, effective and supportive intelligent environment within which the organization can achieve its business objectives’
The IBE project proposed a model of building intelligence that was fundamentally different from earlier concepts (Figure 0.2) In this model the focus was on the building’s occupants and their tasks rather than on computer systems. Information technology was acknowledged as one of the ways in which the building can help. Or hinder, the occupants, but it is not the reason for the building’s existence.
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The model states that the three main goals of an organization occupying a building are building management, space management and business management. Building management is the management of the building’s physical environment using both human systems (facilities management) and computer systems (building automation systems). Space management is the management of the building’s internal spaces over time .The overall goals of effective space management are the management of change and the minimization of operating costs. Business management is the management of the organization’s core business activities. In most cases this can be characterized as a combination of the processing, storage, presentation and communication of information. Each of the three organizational goals can be translated into a number of key tasks such as environmental control of the management of change, the minimization of operating costs and the processing, storage, presentation and communication of information. Any organization can use these headings to develop a demand profile-a description of what it requires from a building if it is to function effectively and thrive.
In little more than a decade the expectations of intelligence in buildings have undergone transformation (Figure 0.3).
Future Models: The IBM project achieved many of the goals it set itself. A new model of building intelligence was developed and widely disseminated the IB market in Europe to the year 2000 was analyzed in greater detail than ever before and the first steps were taken to understand the costs and benefits associated with intelligent buildings.
Many further questions, however, needed to be answered. It was important to understand whether the IBM model was culturally specific or could be applied globally; the costs and benefits of greater detail; and a method of evaluating a building’s level of intelligence needed to be developed.
To achieve these tasks a further research project was needed. In 1994 DEGW, together with cost consultants North croft and multi-disciplinary engineering practice Over Arup & partners, formed a joint venture to carry out a follow-up project in South East Asia. This presented itself as a suitable location for further investigation into the future of intelligent buildings because of the high level of infrastructure development and construction activity across the region in cities such as Hong Kong, Singapore, Kuala Lumpur and Jakarta.
The mega projects’ under construction across the region are potent and highly visible symbols of this economic prosperity. As John Naisbtt states in Mega trends in Asia, Asian cities are also racing to put up symbols of success-by building the tallest building in the world. Of the world’s top ten tallest buildings scheduled to be completed in the 1990s, nine will be in Asia. Naisbitt is critical of the desire to build extremely tall buildings in Asia – he sees it as running counter to the increasing environmental consciousness of the 1990s.
While tall buildings have in the West been symbolic of wealth and power, why must the East mimic such a gross lack of taste and efficiency? Asia has a great opportunity to demonstrate an Asia model of success. Eco-friendly work and a human-scale living environment would make a powerful statement. Asian city planners have a great opportunity to demonstrate to the world an Asian way of creating work and living space best for the inhabitants, the harmony of wind and water .
An evaluative study: The Intelligent Buildings in South East Asia (IB Asia) project set out to examine the intelligent buildings in the region and provide guidance on how they might develop in the future to serve the needs of a rapidly changing region.
Australia now considers itself to be part of Asia. As its Prime Minister, Paul Keating, has written: Engagement with Asia has been a major part of Australian public policy for over a decade now … For as never before Australia’s economic, strategic and political interests now coalesce in the region around us… and importantly, finding a place for ourselves in Asia is also about finding our own identity. Asia is no longer the ‘Far East’. It is the ‘Near North’.
While China will undoubtedly play an enormously important role in the future development of Asia it has not been included as part of the current project. The scale of development currently occurring in China is vast and worthy of further study in its own right. The IB Asia study was undertaken over a 12-month period. DEGW was responsible for the building related and organizational research and the development of the Building Rating Method.
Over Arup &Partners (Arup Communications) examined IT and building services trends in the region and rating method team, and North croft and its Asia subsidiaries carried out costs and benefits case studies and developed the IB Asia cost model.
The first part of the present book synthesizes the best available information sources in an attempt to deal with the complex and developing interrelationship of the intelligent building’s component parts-buildings, organizations and information technology. It concludes with a chapter on the integrative discipline of facilities management. The second part draws on material more specifically gleaned from the IB Asia study, and begins to expose the concept of the intelligent building to the scrutiny of the worldwide marketplace. The third part consists of detailed IB Asia research findings on the physical characteristics and business benefits of intelligent buildings and systematizes these findings to produce a new and quantifiable method for the evaluation of intelligent buildings.
The phrase ‘intelligent building’ can conjure up images of futuristic, high- technology buildings, filled with computer systems and the occupants are almost superfluous. The building systems are, of course, important-but they are at the service of the organization: a mean of meeting business objectives rather than an end in themselves. By providing the appropriate synergy between people, place and IT, the most successful intelligent buildings ate likely to be almost invisible. The people working within them will have the appropriate physical and technological supports to conduct their business requirements unaware of the building design and sophistication of the computer systems that may be operating around them.
The intelligent building may in fact be understood as a seamless part of the intelligent infrastructure that serves effective organizational performance. Intelligent building and systems products will have to be highly responsive and adaptive to particular organizational characteristics.
The objective of this chapter is to define the critical organizational issues that should be addressed when designing intelligent building and the impact they will have on the office of the future. Through an analysis of the trends in management theory and information technology in the last 20-30 years it focuses on the requirements of the organization using the building and defines the relationship between people. Place of work and information technology.
Business have gained great advantages in timing, consistency, and accessibility of data and knowledge. Information has become more easily adaptable to changes in strategy and organization.
The abundance of information creates immense opportunities and risks. The simultaneous power of centralization and decentralization offer great benefits if handled effectively.
The mediation between customer and supplier is disappearing. At the same time the organization can operate more tightly and be more responsive. Information systems may become the heart and stable center of organizations, maintaining history, expertise.
IT allows a greater degree of unpredictability, spontaneity and exceptionality to enter the work process. The work of the office is less about the routine (which can more often be automated) and more about the exceptional. The work process for the individual can be enlarged in scope and intensified. But the successful integration demands a high level of training to maximize the benefits of the technology for the users.
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The greatest potential of information technology for the organization will be realized when computers and all IT devices are ubiquitous. Information technology may then become an integral and therefore ‘invisible’ aspect of the working life of the organization. This suggests that these technologies will have achieved their full power when they are incidental aspects of the working process, as much taken for granted as pens and paper were earlier this century. For this to be a reality the relationship between the human quality of life and the use of technologies must be a priority for development.
The trends of development towards ubiquitous technologies and IT tools suggest a much closer relationship between the information technology used in the work process by the organization and the technologies of intelligence in buildings. The IT used in the work process is likely to move in the direction of becoming more ‘knowledgeable’ about their location and surroundings, to have the capacity to adapt their response to suit patterns of use and their environment, and to be more adaptable to particular tasks. IT may become part of a ubiquitous network, in use as part of every work process. I can see the horizons for the engineer of whom I speak growing out of an appraisal of human needs that play dominant roles in automation and control. Technology already affords our American economy the means to satisfy man’s primitive need for food and shelter. I suggest, therefore, that to illustrate my point we focus out attention on the following four needs: 1.Communication; 2. Energy exploitation; 3. Materials; 4. Mobility.
Man must communicate to live. Instead of training engineers mainly about closed-ended communication gadgets such as the radio, the telephone, or the computer, I suggest that we broaden their horizons to the open-ended concepts and ideas that underlie the processing, storing, and transmission of information or signals between man and man, between man and machine, between machine and machine. Perhaps most important, we should stimulate an engineer to direct some of his skills at achieving a better understanding of the communications within himself. This broad point of view opens up new horizons that offer engineers the opportunity for a greatly enhanced role in society. Today’s man-made communication systems are primitive compared with those occurring in humans, but they serve as important springboards toward human understanding of human beings. Especially in the field of automation, as evidenced by the recent interest in adaptive control, there is now need for interaction and communications between the physical, the life, and the social sciences, and the humanities.
We can see the horizons for the engineer of whom I speak growing out of an appraisal of human needs that play dominant roles in automation and control. Technology already affords our American economy the means to satisfy man’s primitive need for food and shelter. I suggest, therefore, that to illustrate my point we focus out attention on the following four needs: 1.Communication; 2. Energy exploitation; 3. Materials; 4. Mobility.
Man must communicate to live. Instead of training engineers mainly about closed-ended communication gadgets such as the radio, the telephone, or the computer, I suggest that we broaden their horizons to the open-ended concepts and ideas that underlie the processing, storing, and transmission of information or signals between man and man, between man and machine, between machine and machine. Perhaps most important, we should stimulate an engineer to direct some of his skills at achieving a better understanding of the communications within himself. This broad point of view opens up new horizons that offer engineers the opportunity for a greatly enhanced role in society. Today’s man-made communication systems are primitive compared with those occurring in humans, but they serve as important springboards toward human understanding of human beings. Especially in the field of automation, as evidenced by the recent interest in adaptive control, there is now need for interaction and communications between the physical, the life, and the social sciences, and the humanities.
will be immense.
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